‌‌‌‌　　英：philosophy; 法：philosophie

‌‌‌‌　　弗洛伊德曾把哲学看作同艺术与宗教并举的一种伟大文化建制一它是文明状态高度发展的标志。然而，他对哲学与精神分析之间关系的看法则有些暖昧不明。一方面，他颂扬某些哲学家（诸如恩培多克勒与尼采等人）仅仅凭借直觉便完全预期了精神分析家们只有通过刻苦的钻研才得以发现的事物（Freud, 1914d: SE XIV, 15-6)。另一方面，他又再三批评哲学家们把精神等同于意识且因而根据纯粹“先验”的理由排除了无意识（Freud, 1925e [1924]: SE XIX, 216-7),而且他也把哲学体系比作偏执狂的妄想 (Freud, 1913-13: SEXI, 73).

‌‌‌‌　　在拉康的著作中，同样存在着精神分析与哲学之间的一种矛盾关系。一方面，拉康把精神分析对立于那些哲学体系的整体化解释 (S1,118-19: S11,77),并把哲学联系于主人 (MASTER)话语，即精神分析的反面 (S20,33)。另一方面，拉康的著作中又充满着各种哲学性的参照：实际上，这一点也往往被看作把拉康区别于其他精神分析思想家的特征之一。拉康最常提到的哲学家有如下几位：

‌‌‌‌　　·柏拉图拉康经常把精神分析的方法比作苏格拉底式的对话 (见：辩证法[DIALECTIC])。此外，他还特别提到了很多柏拉图的著作，尤其是《会饮篇》(The Symposium), 他将自己1960一1961年度的研讨班中很大一部分篇幅专门用于讨论这则文本。

‌‌‌‌　　·亚里士多德拉康在1964年的研讨班上讨论了亚里士多德的因果关系类型 (见：偶然[CHANCE]), 又在1970一1971年度的研讨班上讨论了亚里士多德的逻辑。

‌‌‌‌　　·笛卡尔拉康的著作中到处都提及笛卡尔的思想观点，因为他把我思 (COGITO)哲学看作概括了现代人心理的真正核心 (S2,6)。拉康的主体概念既是笛卡尔式的主体（在其从怀疑走向确信的追问之中），同时又是对于笛卡尔式主体的颠覆。

‌‌‌‌　　·康德康德的道德哲学 (即《实践理性批判》)是拉康最感兴趣的部分，而且在其有关伦理学的研讨班 (1959一1960)及其有关《康德同萨德》(1962)的文章中，他皆对此进行了详尽的讨论。拉康用康德的绝对律令 (categorical imperative)阐明了弗洛伊德的超我概念。

‌‌‌‌　　·黑格尔拉康参加了亚历山大·科耶夫在1933一1939年举办于巴黎高等师范学校的一系列关于黑格尔的讲座 (这些讲座后来由雷蒙·格诺①搜集并出版；见：Kojeve, 1947)。这些讲座对拉康著作的影响极大，尤其是其早期著作，但凡是拉康提到黑格尔的地方，他心中所想的都是科耶夫对于黑格尔的解读。从黑格尔那里，拉康（主要）接受了对于辩证思维模式的强调、美的灵魂（BEAUTIFUL SOUL)的概念、主人 (MASTER)与奴隶的辩证法，以及动物欲望与人类欲望之间的区分。

‌‌‌‌　　·海德格尔拉康与海德格尔的私交甚密，他曾拜访海德格尔，而且还翻译有海德格尔的一些作品。海德格尔对于拉康著作的影响，可见于拉康对存在 (BENG)的形而上学讨论，也可见于他在充实言语 (SPEECH)与空洞言语之间的区分。

‌‌‌‌　　这些还仅仅是拉康最常提到的一些哲学家，此外他还讨论了很多其他哲学家的著作，诸如圣奥古斯丁、斯宾诺莎与萨特等人。

‌‌‌‌　　拉康的著作同很多哲学流派与追问领域皆有交集。在其早期著作中，他便显示出了一种朝向现象学的偏好，甚至在1936年提出了一种“关于精神分析经验的现象学描述”(Ec, 825), 但是他在后来变得相当反对现象学，而且在1964年针对梅洛-庞蒂的《知觉现象学》提出了一则批评 (S11,71-6)。就精神分析触及本体论的问题而言，拉康把精神分析匹配于唯物主义 (MATERIALISM), 而反对一切形式的唯心主义。拉康同样有触及认识论与科学（SCIECE)哲学，他在此的取径始终都是理性主义而非经验主义的。

‌‌‌‌　　有关拉康与哲学之间关系的进一步资料，可参见：朱朗维尔 (Juranville, 1984)、梅西 (Macey, 1988: ch. 4)、拉格朗德-苏利文 (Ragland-Sullivan, 1986)以及萨缪尔 (Samuels, 1993)。

‌‌‌‌　　(philosophie) Freud regarded philosophy as one of the great cultural institutions, alongside art and religion-the mark of a highly developed state of civilisation. However, he viewed the relationship between philosophy and psychoanalysis in ambiguous terms. On the one hand, he credited certain philosophers (such as Empedocles and Nietzsche) with having anticipated purely by intuition what psychoanalysts discovered only bylaborious investigation (Freud, 1914d: SE XIV, 15-16). On the other hand, he repeatedlycriticised philosophers for equating the psyche with consciousness and thus excluding theunconscious on purely a priori grounds (Freud, 1925e [1924]: SE XIX, 216-17), andlikened philosophical systems to paranoiac delusions (Freud, 1912-13: SE XIII, 73).

‌‌‌‌　　In Lacan's work too there is an ambivalent relationship between psychoanalysis andphilosophy. On the one hand, Lacan opposes psychoanalysis to the totalisingexplanations of philosophical systems (S1,118-19; S11,77), and links philosophy withthe discourse of the MASTER, the reverse of psychoanalysis (S20,33). On the otherhand, Lacan's work is full of philosophical references; indeed, this is often regarded asone of the features that distinguishes Lacan from other psychoanalytic thinkers. Thephilosophers most frequently referred to by Lacan are the following:

‌‌‌‌　　Plato Lacan often compares the psychoanalytic method to the Socratic dialogue (seeDIALECTIC). He also refers specifically to a number of Plato's works, especially The Symposium, to which he dedicates a large part of his 1960-1 seminar.

‌‌‌‌　　.Aristotle Lacan discusses Aristotle's typology of causation in the 1964 seminar (seeCHANCE), and Aristotelian logic in the seminar of 1970-1.

‌‌‌‌　　Descartes References to Descartes abound in Lacan's work, since he sees thephilosophy of the COGITO as summing up the very heart of the psychology of modemman (S2,6). The Lacanian concept of the subject is both the cartesian subject (in its questto move from doubt to certainty) and the subversion of the cartesian subject.

‌‌‌‌　　Kant It is Kant's moral philosophy (the Critique of Practical Reason) which mostinterests Lacan, and he discusses this at length both in his seminar on ethics (1959-60) and his essay on 'Kant with Sade' (1962). Lacan uses Kant's categorical imperative tothrow light on the Freudian concept of the superego.

‌‌‌‌　　Hegel Lacan attended a series of lectures on Hegel given by Alexandre Kojeve in1933-9 at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes (these lectures were later collected and publishedby Raymond Queneau; see Kojeve, 1947). The influence of these lectures on his work, especially his earlier work, is immense, and whenever Lacan refers to Hegel it is Kojeve's reading of Hegel that he has in mind. From Hegel Lacan takes (among otherthings) an emphasis on dialectical modes of thought, the concept of the BEAUTIFULSOUL, the dialectic of the MASTER and the slave, and a distinction between animal andhuman DESIRE

‌‌‌‌　　Heidegger Lacan established a personal friendship with Heidegger, visiting him andtranslating some of his works. Heidegger's influence on Lacan's work can be seen in Lacan's metaphysical discussions of BEING, and in the distinction between full SPEECHand empty speech.

‌‌‌‌　　These are only the philosophers to whom Lacan refers most frequently; he alsodiscusses the work of many other philosophers such as St Augustine, Spinoza, Sartre, andothers.

‌‌‌‌　　Lacan's work engages with many philosophical schools and areas of enquiry. In hisearly work he shows a bent towards phenomenology, evenpresentinga'phenomenological description of the psychoanalytic experience'in 1936 (Ec, 82-5), buthe later becomes quite opposed to phenomenology, and in 1964 presents a critique of Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception (S11,71-6). Insofar as psychoanalysisengages with ontological questions, Lacan aligns psychoanalysis with MATERIALISM, against all forms of idealism. Lacan also engages with epistemology and the philosophyof SCIENCE, where his constant approach is rationalist rather than empiricist.

‌‌‌‌　　Further information on Lacan's relationship with philosophy is provided in Juranville (1984), Macey (1988: ch. 4), Ragland-Sullivan (1986) and Samuels (1993).